The Effects of Athlete Self-Confidence

The Effects of Athlete Self-Confidence 2.0 Introduction The purpose of this review is to provide a critical analysis of the available literature on sources, levels and importance of self confidence. It explores theories relating to self-confidence and the various measurements that have been used in recent years to assess this construct. The focus of the review will aim to analyse firstly self confidence and the importance of it among sport performers, it will highlight various studies and identify that self confidence is spilt into constructs, which in turn leads on to identifying self efficacy and sport confidence. The review will also look at different sources of sport confidence and which are most salient to elite and non elite athletes, and finally it will give a brief rationale to why the study is being taken out. 2.1 Self confidence Defining self-confidence within the sport psychology literature has emerged as a difficult issue (Taylor Wilson, 2005). However, Vealey and Chase (2008) defined self-confidence as the belief in ones abilities to achieve success, and is often identified as an important mental skill for success in sport by those individuals engaging in competitive sports, including both athletes and coaches. Self confidence is suggested to be the paramount contributor and the most critical cognitive factor affecting an athelets success (Spink,1990). Similarly, (Vealy et al 1998), suggests that self confidence is widely accalaimed by theorists, researchers, and practioniers as the most critical psychological characteristic influencing a sport performance. This ultimately suggests that self confidence is a subject topic central in influencing an athletes performance and in turn crucial in investigation. Lirgg (1991) similarly to Vealey (1998) stated that Self-confidence has been the subject of much research in recent years in the sport psychology literature (p,294-310). The perception of ones own abilities has been frequently cited as a mediated construct in attainment strivings and as a psychological factor affecting athletic performance. One of the most important relationship is between confidence and performance, from past literature Weinbourg Gould (2003,p,311) state is clear that there is a positive relationship between confidence and performance (Vealey 2001), however the factors affectiong this relationship are less known. Factors such as organizational culture, gender and age have been suggested as important. Taking into account relationships confidence has with different mediating factors, it is also important to recognise it as a complicated construct. Confidence has been operationalized in numerous ways (Feltz, 1988). It has been categorised into constructs such as self-efficacy (Bandura, 1986, 1977), perceived competence, sport-confidence(Vealey,1986 Vealey 1998 et al), expectancies (Rotter, 1954), and movement confidence (Griffin Keough, 1982) these have all been proposed as measuring an individuals perception of his or her abilities (Lirgg 1991). Self confidence affects the way one feels, thinks and behaves, and thus has an important influence upon sporting performance, Bandura.,(1997) Jones and Hanton,(2001). Self confidence might be something one feels one day therefore unstable or it may be part of oness personality. It has been thought by Clifton Gill, (1994) that a high level of self confidence is one of the most consistently reported psychological characteristics of elite athletes ( p,150). However, despite claims about the importance of self confidence to performance, Feltz (2007) declares that its relationship with performance has not been clear in much of the sport science research in turn suggesting areas for development in research. However in contrary to Feltz (2007) a psychological research study conducted by Jones et al (1994) and Edwards Hardy (1996) illustrate the importance of high levels of confidence in athletes success. The research presented a positive correlation between self confidence and skilled performers, however it is still in debate as to whether the relationship perceived is a casual or a direct one (Feltz 1988). Taking into account this literature review, it was copiously apparent that during conducting interviews Jones Hardy found that within athletes minds, self confidence was extrememly significant especially if they were to attain the levels of performance which they sought (Jones,Hardy Gould 1996). This in turn reinforces the consequence of self confidence on performance and how it must be present if success is required. An additional study that has been conducted to emphasise self confidence in athletes is Mahoney et al (1987) who carried out an experiment which identified psychologic al skills in elite and non elite performers. There use of instrumentation was a questionnaire they issued it to 713 athletes from 23 sports, the results proved that elite performers had higher and more stable levels of self confidence than the non elite athletes therefore was suggested that there were major differences factoring between elite and non elite performers. Another theory surrounding the notion of self confidence was founded by Feltz (2007) who identified the self concept theory, he emphasises that even though a number of terms are associated to self-confidence it should, however not be confused with the construct, and that Self-concept represents an amalgamated view of oneself that is developed during evaluative experiences and social interactions. In congruence with what Bandura has previously distinguished, Fetlz (2007) also recognizes however, that a global self-concept will not envisage the intra-individual variability in performance as well as self-confidence discernment which vary across activities and circumstances. Within the domain of self confidence there appears to be two main approaches to the study and measurement of self confidence in sport: sport confidence and self-efficacy. Sport confidence (Vealey, 1986) refers to the belief that an athlete possesses about his or her ability to be successful in sport in general (trait sport confidence) and in specific sport competitions (state sport confidence). Self-efficacy (Bandura, 1986) refers to an individuals belief in his or her capabilities to be successful in executing specific tasks and skills in specific situations, and is measured in terms of the strength, level, and generality of self-efficacy. Banduras (1986) self efficacy theory and Vealeys (1986) sport confidence model present quite diverse approaches to confidence. Self efficacy is very much a situation specific conceptuilaistion in comparison to the sport confidence model which is far more generalised. An explicit strength that the sport confidence model exemplifies is is its parsim onious approach, this is proven on the basis that its logical and in turn an accurate tool for sport psychologists to use. However at a more contextual level the specificity of self efficacy can be used more efficiently. Feltz and Chase (1998) stated that Vealeys notion of sport-confidence shares similarities with Banduras conceptualization of self-efficacy on the basis that they are both built around the social cognitive theory. Subsequently, both can be regarded as cognitive mechanisms through which individuals mediate their motivation and behavior within a goal context. 2.2 Self efficacy: Self efficacy is an identifiable and important attribute within sport. Coaches, players and psycholoigists all recognize the power-full and imperative effects that this psychological construct can have on behaviour, feelings and thoughts (Feltz,short Sullivan 2008) . It is important to understand that expectation of efficacy will by no means produce a desired performance, providing that the component cabilities are lacking. A study that has become increasingly accepted is that of Banduras (1977) self efficacy theory, this theory was initially progressed within the construct of social cognitive theory (Feltz Chase,1998). The theory proclaims that individual self confidence derives from self efficacy levels. Self efficacy simply represents a form of situation specific to self confidence (Hardy ,Jones Gould,1996). Feltz states that the terms self confidence and self efficacy have been used to describe ones perceived capability to accomplish a certain level of performance. Bandura defines self efficacy as; The conviction one has, to execute successfully, the behaviour required to produce a certain outcome and thus, can be considered a situational specific slef confidence. Whereas, Vealey (1986). Defines self efficacy as the belief or degree of certainty individuals possess about their ability to be successful in sport (p.222). Short Stewart (2008, p223) states that Self-efficacy is defined as beliefs in ones capabilities to organise and execute the courses of action required to produce given attainments (Bandura, 1997: p.3). Both self confidence and self efficacy relate to individuals perceived capability to aquire a certain level of perfromace (Bandura, 1986; Feltz, 1988). The fundamental principle surrounding the self efficacy theory is that different levels of self efficacy in turn predict actual performance assuming that necessary skills and incentives are present ( Weiss, Weise and Kilint 1989). Self-efficacy is not considered, by Bandura (1977, 1986, 1997), to be a synonym for self-confidence. However, many people concerned in area of sport psychology often use the terms interchangeably since the latter is far more familiar to athletes and those not in the academic arena. Short and Stewart (2008) claim that Bandura (1997) prefers the use of self-efficacy over self-confidence ( p.224). In relation to athletes Hardy, Jones and Gould (1999) suggest that elite athletes with high levels of self efficacy put under a high pressured situation should in turn allow them to maintain their commitments to difficult goals, and increase persistence. This will in turn allow them to attribute their failure to unstable factors appose to stable factors this therefore can draw comparison with how non elite athletes attribute their failure which inturn are down to factors such as; stable factors. Different people who inhabit similar skills such as an elite athelte, or undeniably the same person under different situations might perform poorly, adequately or exceptionally well depending upon fluctuation in their personal effeicacy beliefs (Hays et al, 2007). This is sustained by Bandura (1997) who states that self efficacy beliefs are an important contributor to performance accomplishments, whatever the underlying skill of the performer is (Hays et al 2007). Similar to other subject topics in sport psychology the focus of self-efficacy research studies has varied over time and is reflective of the paradigmatic evolution of the field, Short Sterwart (2008). Bandura (1997) states that the study of self efficacy beliefs in sport should not be limited to physical proficiency it can include all aspects of performance, like game situations, selecting effective strategies, predicting opponents actions, using imagery, managing pressure and distractions. Bandura (1977) questioned how efficacy beliefs are formed, Bandura (1997) theorizes that they are a creation of an intricate process of self appraisal and self persuasion that therefore depends on cogniotive processing. He then branded these sources as past performance accomplishments, Vicarious experiences, Verbal persuasion and Emotional arousal. According to Bandura (1986, 1997) past performance accomplishments is said to be the most significant source of efficacy information for athletes because they are based on their own experiences. There has been overwhelming support for the influence of past performance accomplishments on self-efficacy beliefs (Short Stewart, 2009). Moritz et al. (2000) established, that as an athelete increases thier experience on a specific task over time, performance consequently develops into a stronger predictor of self-efficacy than self-efficacy is of performance. Secondly there is Vicarious experiences, this is derived through observing and comparing oneself with others or with norms (Feltz et al., 2008). It is apparent that through sport, athletes will always be sizing themselves up against other athletes (Short Stewart, 2009). An example of this is based on Weinberg et al. (1980) results, Bandura claimed that a formidable-looking opponent instils lower efficacy beliefs than does one who loo ks less impressive (1997: 18). Consequently, an opponent who appears intimidating will as a result cause their opponents efficacy beliefs to instantly decrease in comparison to an opponent who did not exhibit those qualities. Another source of efficacy, verbal persuasion, takes place when significant others express their support for ones capabilities to succeed. This can comprise of, coaches positive feedback, parents encouragement, and self-talk. Verbal persuasion is an essential factor in motivating individuals to persist in their efforts, if persuaders assessment is within realistic bounds, although on its own is limited (Bandura, 1977). The last source is, physiological efficacy this can manipulate self-efficacy, due to the association people make between the level of physiological arousal/specific emotions and their performances. To illustrate this, an athlete can associate nervousness (e.g. sweaty palms) with a bad performance, feeling nervous about a game could lower his/her self-confidence. Therefore as a result of this it is apparent, that how arousal is interpreted by an athlete influences peoples self-efficacy. Performance accomplishments Vicarious experience Verbal persuasion Emotional arousal Efficacy expectations Maddux (1995) and Schunk (1995) have since proposed there are six sources of efficacy predictors. They have created a separate category for imaginal experiences instead of including it as part of vicarious experiences and have split physiological states from emotional states. Thus, developments from Banduras (1997) self-efficacy theory have led to more sport specific models being introduced (Vealey, 1986, 1998). 2.3 Vealeys Conceptual Model of Sport Confidence Although the theory surrounding self efficacy advanced the area of self confidence enormously it was applied through the wide field of clinical psychology. Vealey (1986) proposed a more applicable and conceptualised model, which has been evidently expanded within the discipline of sport psychology. Vealey believed that the sport confidence model would allow for a more consistent prediction of behaviour across the diverse sporting situations. Delving in more depth in to the subject topic of sport confidence shows that there are three constructs. Firstly trait sport confidence this is considered by (Weinbourg Gould 1999,p,286) the belief or degree of certainty individuals usually posess about their ability to be successful in sport A trait in an individuals personality is predominately stable. Then secondly state sport confidence is (Vealey, 1986, p. 223). state sport confidecnce which is defined as the belief or degree of certainty individuals possess at one particular moment about their ability to be successful in To further this model an extra construct was added, which is comepteive orientation, this progresses from the proposal that success means different things to different people. This construct accounts for individual differences in defining success in sport (Vealey,1988). Competitive orientation was incorporated within the model based on Maehr and Nicholls (1989) idea that success equates to different things and subsequently to different people. Vealey (1998) predicted that SC-trait interacts with competitive goal orientation to elicit a SC-state that directly influences behaviour and performance. Vealey developed three tools in which would allow to test the relationship shows within the model; firstly the state sport confidence inventory (SSCI), Trait sport confidence inventory (TSCI), and the competitive orientation inventory (COI). It has also become apparent that researchers have used the competitive state anxiety inventory-2 (CSAI2), to measure confidence levels in sport situation. A limitation of Vealeys (1986) conceptual model of sport confidence was that it withdrew from compriseing social and organisational factors on the development of athletes. For example, significant others such as coaches and families can have an momentous impact on many athletes confidence levels and research has supported that perceived cultural appropriateness of an activity has been shown to affect confidence levels in males and females (Clifton Gill, 1994; Lirgg, 1991; Lirgg et al., 1996). Vealey et al. (1998) suggested that athletes rely on sources of confidence depending on the activity they are engaged in. Therefore a new model was proposed by Vealey (1998). 2.4 Sources of sport confidence There have been two programmes of research that have investigated the sources of sport confidence. Sources of sport confidence can be defined as the sources that athletes use for judgment of their confidence, for example, where they derive their confidence from. Firstly, Vealeys model of sport confidence which was originally developed over 20 years ago, has now been refined to include sources of sport confidence. The model predicts that demographic, personality characteristics and organizational culture can influence athletes sources of sport confidence. Demographic characteristics include any personal characteristics, such as: age, sex, type of sport. Personality characteristics, attitudes and values of athletes comprise of competitive orientation and self-esteem. The organizational variables encompass motivational climate, competitive level, types of sport, goals, structural expectation of particular sport programmes (Vealey, 2001). Secondly Hay et al.s (2007) recently published a qualitative study on the sources and types of confidence in sport. Short et al (2008) drew comparisons and similarities with Banduras theory of self-efficacy (see table 1). In addition, they also contain unique sources that are specific to athlete populations. The connotation of investigating the sources of confidence in sport has been speculated to have practical and theoretical implications. Firstly theoretically, these sources provide a foundation for levels of self-confidence and subsequent affect (e.g., how an athlete feels), cognition (e.g., what athletes think about during sport) and behaviours (e.g., how an athlete responds). Then looking from a practical standpoint, self-confidence is viewed by numerous athletes as unstable; this over time would seem to be a function of the sources upon which confidence is based (Vealey Sinclair, 1987). It is crucial therefore that when assesing athletes that the investigator identifies the most important aspects to the athlete, before intervening to enhance that confidence. In Short Stewarts (2008) chapter it is identified that Vealey et al (1998) sought to recognize the sources of sport confidence for athletes. Her data was based on samples of high school and intercollegieate athletes. This instantly draws comparison with Hays et al (2007) who sought after sources and types of confidence for identified world class performers. Nevertheless they both illustrate similarities between each other as they both sought after the most important and most valued sources of sport confidence employed and utlised by athletes within a sporting context (shortStewart, 2008). During a study of 500 high school and collegiate athletes from a variety of sports, Vealey et al. (1998) identified nine sources of confidence. These were mastery (i.e., improving or mastering skills), demonstration of ability (i.e., demonstrating or showing off abilities to the opponents), physical/mental preparation (i.e., feeling physically and mentally prepared for competition), physical self-presentation (i.e., ones physical self-image), social support (i.e., perceiving support, positive feedback and encouragement from significant others in sport), vicarious experience (i.e., watching others perform successfully), coachs leadership (i.e., believing coaches leadership abilities), environmental comforts (i.e., familiar with surroundings in environment) and situational favourableness (i.e., feelings that situations are going their way) (see table 1). It is apparent that these sources overlap with the sources that were identified by Bandura (1997) highlighted in the self-efficacy th eory, though are more specific to the context of competitive sport, and also see that there is similairites with Hay et al (2007). Vealey et al. (1998) further examined which sources were the best predictors of sport confidence levels. Futhermore within Vealeys study it was found that several sources were deemed more important than others such as; physical/mental preparation,social support and mastery among was rated in their top five. Vealey also found that other characteristics had an impact on the sources, Vealey identified an aspect such as gender affected the salience of the sources of sport confiedence, (Vealey et al 1998). These nine sources formed the sub-scale structure of the Sources of Sport Confidence Questionnaire (SSCQ; Vealey et al., 1998). Presently, the SSCQ is the only questionnaire designed to assess athletes sources of confidence. Nevertheless, justification for the SSCQ is based upon high school and collegiate athletes and therefore can not be generalised for all athletic groups. Wilson et al.s (2004) study considered the sources of sport confidence in master athletes and even though results were similar, it was infact unsuccessful in replicating the nine sources of confidence in Vealeys et al. (1998) SSCQ. As an alternative then, there were fewer items and the situational favourableness factor was removed. Participants in phase four competed in a team sport. This inventory does not compute self-confidence as a multidimensional construct as it only accounts for the sources of sport confidence, and also does not take into account different types of sport confidence that is evident in more recent research on world class athletes (Hays et al., 2007). Hays et al (2007) suggested that the organisational culture of world class sport differed from other results within previous studies taken out by psychologists such as Magyar Duda,(2000) where they used intercollegiate athletes. It was proven that they differed in terms of where their confidence derived from and whether it is from alternative sources. Flecther,Hanton Mellalieu,(2006) who also identify that organizational culture of world class sport, reinforce that it is likely to differ significantly from that of high school athletes, due to reasons such as; world class athletes are constantly being subjected to additional organizational stressors that will most probably not be present in lower level competition, Hays et al (2007, p436). Demaine and Short (2007) also conducted a study on the sources of sport confidence to examine differences in the sources of sport confidence according to sport involvement factors (i.e., age, total years playing, playing time and athletic scholarship). Participants used were 265 female college basketball players they completed the TSCI and SCI. It became evident thro Results showed that the most popular sources, in order, were: social support, coaches leadership, physical and mental preparation, mastery, demonstration of ability, vicarious experience, environmental comfort, situational favourableness and physical self-presentation. The sources identified by athletes did not differ according to the sport-involvement factors; however, these variables together predicted sport confidence. All of the studies identified in this section refer to quantitative methods. More recently qualitative methodologies have been adopted. 2.5 Individual Differences As well as the research analysed above, many studies have been conducted to understand individual differences such as gender, performance level, and sport type. Results from studies that scrutinize gender difference in self-confidence have been ambiguous. Several studies present that male athletes demonstrate a higher self-confidence than female athletes (Meyers LeUnes, 1996; Trafton et al., 1997), yet, other studies account that there is no apparent gender difference (Cox Whaley, 2004; Perry Williams, 1998). Even though the disparity in the level of confidence between male and female still is uncertain, gender difference seems to subsist in sources of confidence. Within the study by Vealey et al. (1998), females perceived social support and physical self-presentation as more important than the male participants. Previous studies have supported this (e.g., Jones et al., 1991). Hays et al.s (2007) and Gill (1998) studies established that in fact male athletes sources of confidence centred around competitive outcomes. In contrast, the females identified good personal performances as a source of their confidence. However, looking aside from gender and any other characteristic said to affect ones self confidence, Williams (2006) states that if athlete is sufficiently motivated and have become aware of the relationships between their thoughts and behaviour they can in turn develop their self confidence. Self confidence is not only critical to sport performance but also to central to a wide array of behaviours in the wider world out side of sport. An additional individual difference is skill level, it can have a immense influence on levels of self-confidence. Early research conducted by Mahoney et al. (1977) established that the level of pre-competition self-confidence was one of the important differences between US gymnasts. It was reported that the Olympic qualifiers alleged higher, more stable levels of self-confidence in comparison to non-elite athletes. Studies by George (1994) and McPherson (2000); have also supported this statement. Another investigation by Perry and Williams (1998) looked into to the comparison of levels of confidence within different skill levels of tennis players (novice, intermediate, advanced). It was found that the advanced skilled level athletes had significant higher self-confidence than that of the intermediate and novice skilled athletes, however the difference between novice and intermediate athletes deemed no noteworthy difference. A study more recently investigated by Hays et al.s (2007) ex plored how important world class performers rated self confidence. It was exposed that for them have a sense of feeling self-confidence in turn was associated with a triumphant sporting performance, therefore when experiencing low levels of sport confidence, the athletes were probable to a poor performance. It is noticeable that Elite studies principally engage in male athletes (Gill, 1992) and therefore more studies including females would be desired. 2.6 Rationale The literature that has been conversed in this chapter demonstrates the predominate finding that those who possess high levels of confidence are more likely to be successful. The early quantitative research of Vealey has been used as a foundation of sport confidence, recently Hays et al (2007) identified the need for specific research to be specific to elite and non elite athletes. Individual differences such as gender, sport types and performance levels need further investigation. It is therefore the intention of the author to illustrate a comparison of elite and non-elite female netball players of their sources and levels of confidence along side with how important they deem it. It has been devised to try and illustrate the diversity between an athlete who plays under high pressure and strict regime to a player who plays socially, training once a week and occasionally competing in friendly games. Vealey (2001) suggests that more research is needed to fully understand how self confi dence is manifested in the unique context of sport (Hays et al, 2007, p,436).This therefore has a direct impact of the study being taken out as Netball is predominately female led and in relation to the study only female participants will take part. Hypothesis That elite will have higher levels of self confidence and non elite and that elite athelets will rate different sources of self confidence higher and lower than that of non elite ethelets and that there should be a considerable difference

College Admissions Essay: The Turning Point -- College Admissions Essa

The Turning Point Probably the most important turning point in my life happened in 1992. At this time, I was eight years old and living in Williamsport Pennsylvania. My dad had a well-paying job at Anchor Darling Valve Company, I was attending a parochial school and I thought life was just great. At the time we lived in a large four-story house with a separate three-story garage and an acre of forest for a backyard. I had a ten-speed bicycle and I would often go bicycling with my friends at the nearby cemetery. No-one ever objected to this, in fact people would often have picnics at the top of this hill at the cemetery. I guess the only things I ever complained about were the constant music lessons and practice sessions my parents subjected me to. Life was great until my dad came home one day with bad news. As it turned out, his well-paying company was downsizing and they had to let him go. Well, I didn't think much of it at the time. "So he'd get a new job," I thought. Well anyway, he took out his resume and started mailing away. Oh well, life goes on. Well soon enough companies began to take interest in him and he decided to join a company called Cellular One (which would later be bought by ATT and become ATT Wireless Services). So what was the catch? Well, Cellular One's offices are based in Pittsburgh which is not exactly an easy commute from Williamsport. "Carlos, we will have to move, but it won't happen for a while. We'll make sure you finish the school year and besides, I still have to look for a job in Pittsburgh too," my mom told me. Somehow, although I knew my parents had many friends in Williamsport,... ...ttsburgh than I would have ever been able to in Williamsport. I learned how to ski and rock climb, things I became good at and still do today. I also suddenly had a deep appreciation for music. This was something I had never had, now all of a sudden, I actually practiced when I was supposed to (this probably had something to do with the new music teachers). I also took up karate again and eventually earned my black belt. I realized that Williamsport was actually a dull place to live in and the only things I really missed were my friends and the house. Before I knew it, we had lived in Pittsburgh for six years and although it may not be the best place to live in, it has opened up a whole world of opportunities to me. That was something I may never have gotten if I had stayed in Williamsport or if I had continued to move around.

Programming :: essays research papers

Question 1 (1 point) True/false evaluation is "natural" from the computer's perspective because computer circuitry consists of two states. a. True b. False Save answer Bottom of Form Question 2 (1 point) It is considered trivial to compare two constants. a. True b. False Save answer Bottom of Form Question 3 (1 point) The logical AND is usually a binary operator that requires a complete Boolean expression on each side. a. True b. False Save answer Bottom of Form Question 4 (1 point) An AND decision is when one condition must be met or some other condition must be met for the event to take place. a. True b. False Save answer Bottom of Form Question 5 (1 point) You should never ask a question if there is only one possible answer or outcome. a. True b. False Save answer Bottom of Form Question 6 (1 point) When you combine AND and OR operators, the OR operators take precedence. a. True b. False Save answer Bottom of Form Question 7 (1 point) A case structure allows you to substitute a series of selections. a. True b. False Save answer Bottom of Form Question 8 (1 point) Some programs require multiple decisions to produce the correct output. a. True b. False Save answer Bottom of Form Question 9 (1 point) The part of the decision that executes when the tested condition is false is the __________ decision. a. if b. then c. else d. then-else Save answer Bottom of Form Question 10 (1 point) Each programming language supports its own set of __________ operators that express Boolean tests. a. logical comparison b. arithmetic c. logic d. organization Save answer Bottom of Form Question 11 (1 point) A compound, or AND, decision requires a __________ decision. a. if b. or c. nested d. tiered Save answer Bottom of Form Question 12 (1 point) When one or the other of two conditions is true, this is called a(n) __________ decision. a. AND b. AND/OR c. OR d. OR/AND Save answer Bottom of Form Question 13 (1 point) A path that can never be traveled is known as a dead or __________ path. a. unreachable b. unusable c. closed d. useable Save answer Bottom of Form Question 14 (1 point) How many AND and OR statements can you combine in most programming languages? a. one b. two c. three d. as many as you need Save answer Bottom of Form Question 15 (1 point) Case structures are used when you have a series of __________ based on the value stored in a single variable. a. functions b. decisions c. models d. identifiers Save answer Bottom of Form Question 16 (1 point) Which of the following is not a part of a decision table? a. conditions b. possible combinations of Boolean values for the conditions c. possible actions based on the Boolean values d. the actions that correspond to each Boolean value of each condition Save answer

Theraputic Hypothermia Essay -- Health Medicine Medical Essays Researc

Theraputic Hypothermia Hypothermia, defined as a core body temperature less than 95  °F(35 °C) occurs when heat loss exceeds the body’s heat production. (Ruffolo p.47) Thermal stability in humans depends on the body’s ability to adapt to changes in internal and external temperatures. Heat is transferred throughout tissues and fat, and is released at a rate directly related to the temperature of the environment through radiation, conduction, convection, and evaporation.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Hypothermia is typically seen as a bad thing; however, various studies have been proving it to be very useful. Traumatic brain injury initiates several metabolic processes that can exacerbate the injury. There is evidence that hypothermia may limit some of these deleterious metabolic responses. In a randomized controlled trial researchers compared the effect of moderate hypothermia and normhypothermia in 82 patients with severe closed head injuries (score of 3 to 7 on the Glasgow Coma Scale) The patients assigned to hypothermia were cooled to 33 degrees C an average of 10 hours after injury, kept at 32 degrees to 33 degrees C for 24 hours, and then re-warmed. A specialist in physical medicine and rehabilitation who was unaware of the treatment assignments evaluated the patients 3, 6, and 12 months later with the use of the Glasgow Outcome Scale. The demographic characteristics, causes, and severity of injury were similar in the hypothermia group and the normothermia groups. At 12 months 62% of the patients in the hypothermia group and 38% in the normothermia had good outcomes (moderate, mild, or no disabilities). The researchers concluded that â€Å"Treatment with moderate hypothermia for 24hours in patients with severe traumatic brain injury and coma scores of 5 to 7 hastened neurological recovery and may have improved the outcome. (Marion et all)   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Two studies done (one in Australia and the other in Europe) showed the therapeutic value in survivors cardiac arrest. In the Australian study, which involved 77 patients who remained comatose after the restoration of spontaneous circulation, 49% of those treated with hypothermia were discharged home or into a rehabilitation facility compared to the 26% of those not treated with hypothermia. There were no significant differe... ...tion fluids, preparation solution, or baths can contribute to heat loss. Ruffolo Evaporation is the transfer of heat to the air from moist skin or mucous membranes. It occurs through wet skin, open body cavities and the respiratory tract. References (Works Cited) Ruffolo, Daria. www.rnweb.com. Vol. 65 No. 2. February 2002 Marion, DW et all. â€Å"Treatment of traumatic brain injury with moderate hypothermia†, University of Pittsburgh Medical Center. Safar, Peter & Patrick Kochanek. â€Å"Therapeutic Hypothermia After Cardiac Arrest†. New England Journal of Medicine, February 21, 2002 p.612-613 Holzer, Michael. â€Å"Mild Therapeutic Hypothermia To Improve The Neurologic Outcome After Cardiac Arrest.† New England Journal of Medicine, February 21, 2002 p.549 Clifton, Guy et all. â€Å"Lack of Effect of Induction of Hypothermia After Acute Brain Injury† New England Journal of Medicine. February 22, 2002. p.556 Rose, Victoria. â€Å"Children Recover Faster Than Adults From Accidental Or Therapeutic Hypothermia†. www.docguide.com. July 23, 2001 Unknown Author, â€Å"Reducing Brain Temperature May Benefit At-Risk Newborns† http://www.pslgroup.com/dg/4E73E.htm, December 17, 1997

Different kinds of festivals Essay

In a year we have celebrated different kinds of festivals.Sometimes,we do celebrate festivals following our religion.Different religions have different festivals to celebrate.Festival are celebrated in a grand way and gives much joy. The same thing goes for me.I am a Hindu and I celebrate many festivals.The best festival I have ever experienced is Deepavali.Deepavali comes on the month of November and it is usually on the second week of the month.Deepavali is known as the festival of lights for the Hindus. Last year,my family and I celebrated Deepavali at our grandparent’s house.After we woke up,we had to take an oil bath which was massaged from the head down to our toes.Then, we wore our new traditional clothes,dhoti and sari.We got ready to go to the temple near the house. The priest in the temple made a special offering and prayers to the God on this special day. After prayers in the temple,we went back home.A fe w minutes later,my relatives and neighbours came to our house.My grandmother served them with scrumptious traditional food.For instance,murukku,vadai,and tose.They really enjoyed their food and they said it was very tasty. Before the guest left the house,my grandfather gave them â€Å"ang pows†.I was really shocked because throughout I know only Chinese gave â€Å"ang pows† during their festival,Chinese New Year but I never knew that Indiansdid that too. Then, it was time to take our lunch.My father prepared some banana leaves to use as plates.It had really a different taste when eating from a banana leaf.It really potraits a traditional style. In the evening,we packed our things to get ready to go back home.We really missed our grandparents because they were the only ones who celebrated Deepavali in a special way. Among all the Hindu festival,I think the last Deepavali was the best festival I had ever experienced.I like the way they celebrate the festival with lighting up lights around their house.It shows that our life always brightens with ha

Relationship Between Teacher And Students

Similarly harmonizing to Moloi et Al. ( as cited in Mtika & A Gates, 2010 ) , gathering pretend is nonp aril of the proposals that can be utile in student-centered attacks. It does non yet supporter pupils to discourse and draw popular opinions with each other, merely it besides helps to split up pupils apprehension of some constructs and develop their communication accomplishments. In the student-centered give pedagogicsroom, the instructor has to believe of pupils demands and the educateroom is considered as a topographic creator taper where pupils work together, in multitudes and as persons by promoting them to lift out portion in the sk ailment surgical operation all told the cut short ( Jones, 2007 ) . In the student-centered schoolroom, the instructor should cognize about their pupils background. Teachers should watch what they may cognize or pip non cognize about their pupils because it helps to make the schoolroom conditions that argon antip honal to the hear oning demands of the pupils ( Hodson, 2002 ) . Further more(prenominal), in societal constructivist classrooms the relationship surrounded by instructor and pupils argon very much more dynamically complicated, so that the instructor s conk out is much more demanding to let and actively sanction acknowledgment, rating, and Reconstruction ( Gunstone and Northfield all(prenominal) bit cited in Hand et al. , 1997 ) .A A A A A The size of it for good student-centered schoolrooms can be organized into sizeable group ( category with 25-30 pupils ) , average size ( 5-8 pupils ) , lowly group ( 3-5 pupils ) , pair group ( 2 pupils ) and a instructor and a pupil ( merely in item status ) ( MoEYS, 2002a ) . Furthermore, schoolroom agreements, particularly classroom infinite and resources like chairs and tabular arraies for outstanding group activities be besides of moment because appropriate resources helps to back up the soundness and efficiency of boot to the pupils.2. 4 interpretation of the Student-Centered Approaches to take aimA A A A A A The footings student-centered attacks A and revealer-centered attacks A to larning be the same and whilst some articles used the margin student-centered attacks and other articles used the experimental condition learner-centered attacks, the cardinal footings were used transposeably. Both footings focus on the demands of pupils who as scholars be actively enquired in the encyclopedism routine ( Utecht, 2003 ) . The destination student-centered attacks is used in this survey because this term is officially use in Cambodian course of study and ministry educational literature. Furthermore, the student-centered attacks atomic number 18 broader for illustration, a pupil can be delineate as scholar, exclusively a scholar may non be defined as pupil. For illustration, a boastful potent wants to cognize about the educational practice of law in Cambodia, so the adult virile can travel to library or capturek in the MoEYS web order to read and larn about the jurisprudence. The adult male therefore is non a pupil, that he is a scholar.A A A A A A The student-centered attacks to larning are defined as information modeological analysiss associated with an attack to larning where pupils are the head teacher characters in the learning act, and actively larn in a socially synergistic manner ( clank & A Saye, 2000 ) . The student-centered attacks are designed to help pupils to larn shell from meaningful life implements, societal fundamental interactions, and scientific experimentation ( Pedersen & A Liu, 2003 ) .A A A A A A The student-centered attacks to larning focal point on wholeness pupil s demands and ontogeny, because these attacks are intend to develop the potency of every wiz pupil and promote their personal growing and touchments ( Morris, 1996 ) . The student-centered attacks are besides considered useful options to the traditiona listic teacher-centered attacks. Similarly harmonizing to Courtney ( 2008 ) , it looks really antithetical from the traditional didactic information manners that are astray applied in Cambodia. These traditional knowledge methods depend on the direct kick of the instructor and verbal and written fictionalise with small accent on ground but strong accent on memory and callback. Kember ( as cited in ONeill & A McMahon, 2005 ) and Hirumi ( 2002 ) stated the student-centered attacks are in demarcation line to the traditional teacher-centered attacks. In the teacher-centered attacks, instructors are at the centre of the attainment and learning procedure and supply direction to pupils the pupils are the invalidate vass into which the instructor pours their experience. This position contrasts aggressively to that of constructivist possibleness where we see that pupils are cardinal to the acquisition procedure, they are non viewed as empty vass but instead actively take par t in doing experience by accept and work outing jobs for themselves, and developing their self-pride that is indispensable for larning and decision- qualification through and throughout life ( American Psychological Association, 1993 Hirumi, 2002 MoEYS, 2005 ) .A A A A A A The center rule of the student-centered acquisition attacks is that pupils have distinguishable abilities, demands, and involvements for how they learn, and they construct cognition and significance and learn in different ways ( Brady, 2006 Murdoch & A Wilson, 2008 Hirumi, 2002 ) . The American Psychological Association ( 1993 ) stated that pupils have assorted capablenesss and involvements for acquisition. Persons are natural with and develop alone capablenesss and endowments and have acquired through acquisition and societal socialization different penchants for how they like to larn and the gait at which they learn ( American Psychological Association, 1993, p. 9 ) . Harmonizing to Meyer & A Jone s ( as cited in Hirumi, 2002 ) , in the category pupils talk, listen, write, read, and reflect on content, thoughts, issues, and concerns in order to build their ain significance. In student-centered purlieus, scholars are given direct launching to the knowledge-base and work separately and in little groups to work out reliable jobs ( Hirumi, 2002, p. 506 ) . Similarly, harmonizing to Jones ( 2007 ) , a student-centered category is a topographic point where pupils demands are considered, as a group and as persons, and pupils are encouraged to take part in the acquisition procedure all the clip. At different times, pupils may work entirely, in braces, or in groups.A A A A A A As a theory of epistemology, constructivism proposes that pupils bring their existing experiences and beliefs, every bit good as existence positions and their cultural histories, into the acquisition procedure when they internally build cognition by interacting with the environment ( Yilmaz, 2008 ) . Constr uctivism is considered as a procedure that pupils actively construct their cognition upon cognition that they already have ( Motschnig-Pitrik & A Holzinger, 2002 ) . Social constructivist, Vygotsky believed that acquisition is a societal procedure in which scholars developed find outing through interaction with the environment around them ( Brush & A Saye, 2000, p. 5 ) . Harmonizing to Jonassen Duffy & A Jonassen ( as cited in Brush & A Saye, 2000 ) , the demand for more student-centered acquisition activities have been promoted by the protagonists of the constructivist epistemology of acquisition.A A A A A A In short, the cardinal features of the student-centered attacks to larning underscore studentsA anterior cognition and experience, developing vizor Taxonomy believing accomplishments, particularly critical thought and job resolution, researching single acquisition demands and involvements, advancing active pupil engagement, and developing demand for life-long acquis ition ( American Psychological Association, 1993 Brush & A Saye, 2000 Hirumi, 2002 Mtika & A Gates, 2010 ) . However, there is no individual scheme that helps pupils to verify effectual larning all the clip and there is no learning scheme that is better than others in every circumstance. Each learning scheme has its strength and failing, so instructors need to do determinations and chose tuition schemes that help their pupils to accomplish the acquisition results ( Killen, 2003 ) . Similarly harmonizing to Hab & A Em ( 2003 ) , to take and efficaciously use a instruction scheme the instructor has to judge numerous times because choosing an appropriate instruction scheme is based on the determination whether we bear knowledge to pupils through direct direction ( teacher-centered attacks ) or indirect facilitation ( student-centered attacks ) .2. 5 Student-Centered Learning as Adopted by the Cambodian Ministry of EducationA A A A A A 2.5.1 Vision of acquisition and instructi onA A A A A A Learning has many manners much(prenominal) as acquisition by seeing, sense of hearing, composing, reading, watch telecasting, self-experiment, pattern, believing, playing games, analyze circuits and so on. These manners of larning supply cognition to the scholars. However different larning can hold different consequence. Learners may bring forth different larning results with a different acquisition manner to another(prenominal) pupil ( MoEYS, 2002b ) . For illustration, those who learn by listening will bury all or retrieve a small subsequently several yearss. Those who merely stand and see people swimming can non swim, but if they learn to swim themselves, they can swim efficaciously. Peoples hence can make something when they involve themselves. Harmonizing to Confucianism, it is believed that If you tell me, I will bury. If you turn up me, I may retrieve. But if you involve me, I can make and understand ( MoEYS, 2008 ) .A A A A A A The Kampuchean governin g s vision of the intents for acquisition and instruction functions has bit by bit changed surrounded by societies and from one a period of clip to another ( MoEYS, 2002a ) . Previous learning methods considered effectual and appropriate was when instructors were considered to be the cognition suppliers. Teachers provided cognition and told pupils, and pupils listened to instructors and followed instructors without developing their ain thoughts or understanding. In this context instructors had the power because they had the cognition that pupils compulsory to be able to come on through the instruction system. This vision was subsequent officially abandoned because the acquisition results were considered incongruous to both the demands of the state for skilled minds and they compared ill to the wider international educational context.A A A A A A In the undermentioned period, another refreshing learning method was integrated called dubiety and reply method. The instructor raise d inquiries and the pupils answered. This method was adopted in the belief that it would consider better consequences for pupils. The inquiry and reply method was subsequently changed and reformed to what was known as the active method because this method mandatory much relationship surrounded by instructor and pupils. For the ultimately vision, it was believed that creative activity merely relationship between instructor and pupils was non plenty. To hold better consequence for pupils, relationship between pupils and pupils must be created in the instruction and acquisition procedure. Teachers have to fix pupils to work in groups, so pupils can interchange their thoughts, work hand in glove, and assist each other in larning. This last vision is a really of merchandise portion of student-centered attacks ( Hab & A Em, 2003 Inspector, 2002 Ung, 2008 ) . These attacks to larning and learning shifted the power repositing of the instructor from one who held all the cognition to a more fitted one where instructors spouse with, sometimes lead, their pupils into sensitive understanding and cognition.A A A A A A 2.5.2 Principle and theoryA A A A A A Theories that are applied and relevant to learning and larning in the current Kampuchean school system areLearning is making new cognitionLearning is interchanging experience ( Inspector, 2002 )A A A A A A The theories of larning above are besides clearly identifiable as constructs of constructivism. Although constructivism is non a theory of acquisition, the rules have been applied by many pedagogues in instruction and acquisition, particularly, but non merely, in scientific discipline instruction ( Han et al. , 1997 Yilmaz, 2008 ) . Constructivism emphasizes that cognition and significance are constructed by the human head in consequence scholars create links between their bing cognition and new experience and do new cognition constructions and significance ( Yilmaz, 2008 ) .A A A A A A The function of instruc tors and pupils are changed by the acceptance of the student-centered attacks to larning. Students are given great duty for their acquisition and the instructors functions change where they proceed more coordinators or facilitators of the acquisition experiences. Students are encouraged to research the cognition by themselves and with other scholars and the instructors help the acquisition procedure by demoing pupils waies of cognition. In this new function in the schoolroom, the instructors become portion of the acquisition procedure and acts as a picture and a resource for the pupils ( Utecht, 2003 ) . Furthermore, the importance of school is to supply multiple chances to pupils to make cognition and understanding by themselves through research, material experience and work outing jobs.

Coke Zero Essay

Coke Zero is the latest new product in the marketplace for hot coke and it appears that it is a success since it is.Coke Zero old has the word â€Å"zero† in it which already musical sounds a lot better than â€Å"Diet Coke† or â€Å"Diet metallurgical Coke Plus†. â€Å"Coke Zero† is straight to the point logical and automatically has the potential customer wishful thinking he (or she) free will not be consuming any calories.2. Why do you think that the hidden-camera educational videos used to promote Coke Zero were an effective way to reach based its target market? Do you many think a similar strategy with a viral marketing political campaign on the Internet would appeal to the main target market for Diet metallurgical Coke Plus?I think the hidden cameras were a good idea, but not completely original.Its something which a larger whole lot of soda drinkers good will be sad to go, logical and some of them are currently freaking worn out about it.Coke No Sugar, because the title implies, what does not include any sugar.

Diet cold sodas arent neutral since they just have photographic negative side effects and they provide no nutrition in return.Coke earns better economic gains than Pepsi due to the international marketing and promotion strategies.Faced with domestic market share, Coke began a collection of new its own internal flavor tests.Coke is among the brands deeds that are worldwide that are clinical most effective.

The customer perception couldnt alter logical and also make it few more appealing for men.Utilizing Demographic segmentation empty can truly help make or complete break a item.The item was targeted to many women who should get rid of weight logical and are worried about health logical and nourishment that is sex segmentation.The important distinction is the way they taste, due to the recipes.